Figure 3.
Sex and gender differences across the life span. Based on preclinical and clinical research: (a) maternal and paternal life experience can impact fetal programming and offspring behavior in a sex-specific manner (Bale and Epperson, 2015; Rodgers and Bale, 2015). (b) Postpartum depression is associated with behavioral differences in female and male infants and young children (Azak, 2012; Kingston et al, 2012). (c) Neuropsychiatric conditions are more common among prepubertal males than prepubertal females. Limited early life stress may lead to resilience to depression among women (Zahn-Waxler et al, 2008). (d) Onset of sex differences in affective disorders and female-specific mood disorders at puberty. Ovarian hormones modulate brain neurochemistry, structure, and function (Shanmugan and Epperson, 2014; Hantsoo and Epperson, 2015). (e) Prenatal stress contributes to risk for diseases that exhibit sex differences across the life span (Goldstein et al, 2014). (f) Mid-life is associated with marked hormonal shifts for women, but not men. Estradiol effects on stress responses varies in pre- vs post-menopausal women (Dumas et al, 2012; Albert et al, 2015). (g) Females are at greater risk of dementia and adverse effects of many pharmacologic agents used in the treatment of adult disorders (Parekh et al, 2011; Franconi et al, 2012; Spoletini et al, 2012).