Table 1.
The amelioration effect of high-quality animal and plant proteins on experimental IBD.
| Dietary Protein Sources | Dosage | Model | Intervention Time | Conclusion | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Soy protein | 35% energy-providing protein intake | TNBS-induced colitis in SD rats | 4 weeks | Soy protein improved podoplanin + infiltration of colonic mucosal structure; inhibited the proliferation of colon tumor necrosis factor-α + cells and RANKL expression; suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 in bone proteins; and mitigated the high osteoclast surface and depressed bone formation rate in TNBS rats. | [83] |
| Soy–Pea Protein | 17.2% energy-providing protein intake | DSS-induced colitis in SAMP mice | 6 weeks | Fecal myeloperoxidase (MPO) and FITC-glucan permeability scores were significantly decreased; the severity of cobblestone lesions decreased; the abundance of Lactobacillaceae and Leuconostraceae increased; and the concentration of metabolites glutamine and butyric acid increased, while the concentration of plasma linoleic acid decreased. | [28] |
| Soy protein | 20% energy-providing protein intake | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice | 12 days | Soy protein reduced the content of mucin MUC1 and trefoil factor TFF-3 in the colon; inhibited the DSS-induced reduction in colon length; lowered the colon inflammation score; and reduced the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α in the colon and cecum. | [84] |
| Casein and whey protein concentrate | 10% energy-providing casein + 10% energy-providing whey protein concentrate | DSS-induced colitis in BALB/c mice | 3 weeks | Whey protein concentration can improve the loss of body mass in mice, and the effect of low-temperature treatment is more significant; low-temperature treatment of concentrated whey protein significantly reduced colonic inflammation and improved mucosal results; both low-temperature and high-temperature treatment of concentrated whey protein can increase the colonic mucin level; the level of myeloperoxidase in the colon of low-temperature whey protein concentration decreased; and low-temperature whey protein concentration down-regulated the expression of Gbp1, Gbp2, Gbp6 and Cxcl9. | [85] |
| Whey protein | 18% energy-providing protein intake | DSS-induced colitis in Wistar rats | 19 days | Whey protein reduced the expression of interleukin-1β, calprotectin, and inducible nitric oxide synthase; alleviated the clinical symptoms of diarrhea and fecal blood loss; increased the secretion of fecal mucin; and increased the expression of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. | [86] |
| Whey protein | 2.39 or 4.78 g/kg·body weight/day | Acetic acid-induced colitis in Wistar rats | 7 days | Whey protein decreased the levels of inflammatory markers AP-1, COX-2, interleukin-6, interleukin-10, NF-κB, and tumor necrosis factor-α; up-regulated Nrf2 and HO-1 expression; and activated Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. | [87] |
| Acid casein and whey protein | 14%, 30%, and 53% energy-providing protein intake (acid casein:whey protein = 5:1) | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice | 21 days | Compared with a dietary protein level of 14%, a 30% dietary protein diet increased epithelial repair by accelerating inflammation resolution, reducing colon permeability; 53% dietary protein diet aggravated DSS-induced inflammation. | [88] |
| Casein, whey protein, soy protein, white meat, and red meat | 40% energy-providing protein intake | DSS-induced colitis in BALB/c mice | 28 days | 40% casein and red meat can exacerbate colitis; 40% whey protein can effectively alleviate colitis. | [26] |
| Casein or wheat gluten | 20% and 60% energy-providing protein intake | DSS-induced colitis in BALB/c mice | 35 days | The increase in animal protein resulted in a significant increase in colon Ly-6Chigh monocytes and their activation; intestinal inflammation associated with anti-inflammatory TGF-β, pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β), and inducible NO synthetase increased in mice fed a diet rich in animal protein, while plant-protein-rich diets generally decreased their expression. | [89] |
| Milk protein | 53% energy-providing protein intake | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice | 14 days | Compared with the control group of animals that received DSS treatment, a high-protein diet is harmful in the later stages of induction, but it helps with the repair of colonic crypts after acute inflammation. | [90] |
| Whey proteins or donkey Whey proteins | 0.2 g/d whey proteins or donkey whey proteins | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice | 21 days | Compared with the control group, both whey protein and donkey whey protein had the ability to inhibit the expression of proinflammatory protein and inflammatory secretion, and significantly decreased the levels of NF-κB and CD86; donkey whey protein is more effective than bovine whey protein in improving DSS induced colitis. | [91] |
| Dietary protein levels | 14%, 30%, and 53% energy-providing protein intake | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice | 28 days | Compared with the other two diets, the diet with 30% protein content is associated with a lower protein synthesis rate, which can restore the initial level of the colon; it can restore colitis-induced changes such as body weight, cecal protein content, and spleen and muscle protein synthesis rates earlier; reduce inflammation and bacterial translocation in mice. | [92] |
| Whey protein hydrolysate | 300 or 600 mg/kg·body weight/day | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice | 37 days | High doses of whey protein hydrolysate can significantly inhibit weight loss in mice with colitis, protect the colonic mucosal layer, significantly reduce the levels of inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β in colitis mice; upregulate the secretion of short-chain fatty acids in colitis mice, and restore the imbalance of intestinal flora. | [27] |
| Alaska Pollock protein (APP) | 20% energy-providing protein intake | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice | 51 days | APP intake inhibited DSS-induced weight loss, increased the disease activity index, increased spleen weight, shortened colon length, alleviated colonic tissue injury, and changed the structure and composition of fecal microbiota and short-chain fatty acids. | [93] |
| Quinoa protein or quinoa peptide | quinoa protein (1 g/kg·body weight/day) or quinoa peptide (500 or 1000 mg/kg·body weight/day) | DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice | 35 days | Quinoa protein and quinoa peptide effectively relieve colitis symptoms: diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloody stool, weight loss, colon shortening, inflammatory factor release, and intestinal barrier damage. They also regulate gut microbiota, boost short-chain fatty acid production, and inhibit I-κB-α and NF-κB phosphorylation in colon tissues. | [94] |
Abbreviations used: AP-1, active protein kinase-1; BALB/c, BALB/c mouse line; C57BL/6, C57BL/6 mouse line; CD86, cluster of differentiation 86; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; Cxcl,C-X-C motif chemokine ligand; DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate; Gbp, guanylate binding protein; HO-1, haem oxygenase-1; IL-1β, interleukin—1β; Ly-6Chigh, high expression of lymphocyte antigen 6 complex; MUC1, mucin 1; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-B; NO, nitric oxide; Nrf-2, nuclear-related factor-2; RANKL, receptor activator of nuclear factor-κ B ligand; SAMP, SAMP1/YitFC mouse line; SD, sprague–dawley; TFF-3, trefoil factors 3; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; TNBS, 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α.